Literary Theory Essay 2 Feminism Essay Example

Literary Theory Essay 2: Feminism Essay Few myths have been more advantageous to the ruling caste than the myth of woman. (Simone de Beauvoir). Explore some of the ways in which Simone de Beauvoirs notion of the myth of woman has been taken up by feminist literary critics and offer a feminist deconstruction of that myth as it operates in one or more literary texts of your choice. In De Beauvoirs book The Second Sex, the author refers to the notion of the myth of woman; a myth, or number of myths, created by man based on fundamental biological and mental differences which lead to the repression of the female sex. She develops this to talk about concepts of woman as the Other, and the creation of a feminine mystery; that is, a subjective ignorance about the nature of femininity on the part of Man, which He interprets as an objective truth, asserting the existence of a universal female mystery. This illusion De Beauvoir refers to as the eternal feminine. She goes on to illustrate how, historically, myths such as this have been used by men to their advantage in the repression of women: Men need not bother themselves with alleviating the pains and the burdens that physiologically are womens lot, since these are intended by Nature; men use them as a pretext for increasing the misery of the feminine lot still further, for instance by refusing to grant to woman any right to sexual pleasure, by making her work like a beast of burden. (The Second Sex, p285) It can be seen that such mythical notions of feminine sexuality operate within a number of literary texts; in particular the concept of female sexuality which De Beauvoir raises in this quote. We will write a custom essay sample on Literary Theory Essay 2: Feminism specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Literary Theory Essay 2: Feminism specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Literary Theory Essay 2: Feminism specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer One might consider the trite, insipid and primarily asexual heroines of Victorian fiction: Esther Summerson in Dickens Bleak House, for example. Such portrayals of women as without desire or passion, lacking any kind of sexuality, can be seen as reflecting universal expectations held by the society of the time concerning women in relation to such issues as love, marriage, sexuality, domesticity, and motherhood. Feminists like De Beauvoir would claim that such universal expectations about the nature and the role of women were used as a means of repression by the male members of the society in which they lived; or rather protection, the term which was often used to justify such repression. Women were seen as innocent, morally superior to men, yet both biologically and mentally inferior: it was felt in nineteenth century England that women must be sheltered from moral corruption, a view which can be seen reflected in a number of works of literature. In the novels of Jane Austen, for example, women are often confined, kept from the outside world, and men are careful to avoid discussing shocking or morally corrupt information such as Harriet Smiths illegitimacy in Emma in their presence. However, the women in such works rarely express dissatisfaction at their purely domestic lot, seeking amusement in feminine pastimes such as music and drawing. In opposition to this, one might consider Ibsens heroine in Hedda Gabler, a play in which Hedda begs Ejlert Lovborg to tell her stories of his nights of dissipation, longing to be a part of this solely masculine world, and dreads the confinement of pregnancy and motherhood, the biological and domestic fetters common to her sex, ultimately choosing death over domesticity. The confinement of women in Victorian society and literature is expressive of the belief that men only were an autonomic, unified, rational self. It was this belief which was used to justify the deprivation of employment and thus economic independence for women, forcing them into domesticity, servitude and isolation. Women were denied entirely the right to any kind of independence, prevented from owning property, voting or divorcing an abusive husband, a problem which is represented and challenged in Anne Brontes The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, in which Helen Graham deserts her alcoholic and philandering husband in order to morally safeguard her son Arthur. Unhappy marriages such as Helens, though they may be uncommon in the majority of Victorian literature, were nevertheless present in the reality of Victorian society. It can be seen that such problems could have arisen from the so-called marriage market, the virtual sale of a woman by her family in an arranged marriage. Elaine Showalter writes on the sale of women through marriage in her feminist deconstruction of Thomas Hardys The Mayor of Casterbridge, which begins with the literal sale by Michael Henchard of his wife and infant daughter at a fayre. Showalter remarks wryly that Patriarchal societies do not readily sell their sons, but their daughters are all for sale sooner or later (in Modern Literary Theory: A Reader, by Philip Rice and Patricia Waugh). It can even be observed that this marriage market was central to a womans life and upbringing in the nineteenth century; in Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice, for example, Mrs Bennett talks solely of marrying off her five daughters, encouraging them to flirt and make themselves attractive to men, and is incensed when her daughter Elizabeth turns down a lucrative proposal of marriage. It can be perceived that both Mrs Bennett and her daughters, and Victorian heroines in general, are products of an upbringing looking forward to and entirely based on their marriage prospects. Hence in literature, whether or not the heroine supports or challenges this convention of the marriage market (for example, by marrying outside her social class, as Shirley Keeldar does in Charlotte Brontes Shirley), it can be observed that within nineteenth century literature, women were portrayed as being solely defined by their relationships and the concept of being in love; while men may define themselves through political, economic or intellectual means, the only option for a woman was to find meaning in life via her personal relationships, in particular her relationship with a man, which would eventually lead to a new, all-absorbing purpose in life: that of domesticity and motherhood. Even apparent feminist writers such as the Brontes, whose novels were considered shocking when first published (as much for the gender of the writers as that of their heroines), submit to this convention. Jane Eyre eventually relinquishes her independence, returning to Thornfield to marry Rochester, just as Cathy in Wuthering Heights is defined through her love for Heathcliff, although their love is adulterous. Patricia Stubbs refers to this convention of the definition of women through feeling in her book, Women and Fiction, saying the need to love and be loved finally submerges all other essentially feminist issues. While men within literature are defined through their rationality, women find meaning in life solely through emotion. Another important issue in discussing the role of women in literature is that of The Body, and its portrayal in literary texts. The portrayal of the female body in literature can be seen as emphasising De Beauvoirs notion of the myth of woman. In nineteenth century literature, for example, in the majority of cases the body is described only as far as it expresses the character of the woman the author is describing, through her facial features and dress, as in this description of Harriet Smith in Jane Austens Emma, for example: She was short, plump and fair, with a fine bloom, blue eyes, light hair, regular features and a look of great sweetness (Emma, p 23) No reference is made to any parts of the body which might indicate sexuality in a woman; generally, this issue is avoided altogether, its existence denied as women are desexualised, as in Dickens, in which the women are always affectionate but never shown to be sexually attracted to their lovers, or sexuality is referred to only through suggestion and euphemism, as in Jane Eyre, in which hands and eyes are often substituted for penises, and the word vitals used for female genitalia: He had a rounded, muscular, and vigorous hand, as well as a long, strong arm. (Jane Eyre, quoted in The Marxist-Feminist Collective, in Rice and Waughs Modern Literary Theory, p109) However, although it does make reference in this veiled way to the existence of a feminine sexual desire rather than denying its existence, even Jane Eyre can be seen as representing a double standard of sexuality: Jane is expected to repress her passionate nature and sexual desire, remaining the chaste Victorian heroine, while it is considered acceptable that the married Rochester has had a string of mistresses. Later works of fiction are less wary about descriptions of the female form; in Lawrence, for example, one finds this description, in which the writer refers openly to the girls bosom without evasion or euphemism: She was a handsome girl with a bosom, and dark hair and blue eyes, a girl full of easy laughter, flushed from the sun, inclined to wipe her laughing face in a very natural and taking manner. (The Rainbow, p16) However, even in these cases it can be observed that descriptions of the female form are always aesthetic, always idealised; physical realities of the female body such as menstruation and puberty are overlooked or ignored, while later, post-feminist writers such as Margaret Atwood are not afraid to mention these issues, referring unashamedly to the female bodys biological functions. In her novel The Handmaids Tale, for example, the heroine Offred, in a futuristic distopia, finds comfort in the existence a hotel lavatory, recalling her friend Moiras observation that everybody shits. Conversely, the body, in literature as in reality, can also be used to emphasise rather than detract from a womans biological differences. This, too, can be seen as a means of repression: the body is used to place emphasis on the womans function as a child bearer, thus often implicitly suggesting this as her sole purpose. In her book The Second Sex, De Beauvoir quotes from Balzac: Pay no attention to her murmurs, her cries her pains; nature has made her for our use and for bearing everything: children, sorrows, blows and pains inflicted by man. (Balzac, Physiology of Marriage; quoted in The Second Sex, Simone de Beauvoir) Such conceptions concerning a womans biological purpose can lead to another myth regarding the nature of women: that of a woman as being a creature of nature, more animalistic and primitive than man. In literature, this myth can be seen to operate in two ways: either it is presented in the extreme, woman as the monster, a purely animal creature controlled by passion and instinct; or alternatively, the opposite may be presented: woman as a spiritual being, an angel. One might consider the opposition of the mad Bertha Rochester with the saintly Helen Burns in Jane Eyre. However, both of these figures, the angel and the monster, can be seen as outside humanity and into the mythical realm of De Beauvoirs eternal feminine. Jane herself could be viewed as a more realistic representation of a woman, a mix of the Christian faith and charity of Helen Burns and the animalistic passion and desire of Bertha Rochester, which she must learn to control. Thus it can be seen that the myth of woman is not one myth but a variety of myths concerning stereotypical ideas of the nature of women, all of which have been incorporated in and influenced various works of literature by both male and female writers, whether their purpose was to construct or challenge the myth. In order to illustrate the points I have raised in this essay, I will attempt a feminist deconstruction of Charlotte Brontes novel Shirley in relation to the myth of woman. It can be perceived that this novel attempts to challenge traditional constructs within Victorian literature concerning the myth of woman in its portrayal of Shirley Keeldar, a character who not only has a traditionally male name, but who runs her own estate and by her own admission sees a newspaper every day (Shirley, chapter 18, paragraph 59). Shirley refuses to allow herself to become a victim of the marriage market by letting her uncle force her into marriage with her titled suitor Sir Philip Nunnely, nor does she accept an advantageous proposal of marriage from Robert Moore, a local mill owner. It could be argued that Shirley is in every way a feminist. However, it can also be suggested that, as much as Shirley can be viewed as a feminist, at the end of the novel she too, like other Victorian heroines, allows the need to love to submerge all other essentially feminist issues when she marries Louis Moore, thus relinquishing control of her estate to him, a representative of the patriarchy. Thus even Shirley is ultimately defined through her emotions and love relationships. In spite of this, the reader finds it hard to appreciate Shirleys submission to marriage as an injustice. The narrator encourages her readers to feel that Shirley submitted to Louis not only because she loved him but because he was the right man for her, one who would not abuse her submission and the power she relinquishes to him. It is seen as a natural progression, from the master and pupil relationship they had previously to the relationship of husband and wife. It is suggested that the narrator approves of this arrangement: his rationality is seen as a check for her flaws, and in particular her passionate nature. The narrators implied approval of Louis Moore as Shirleys husband can be seen in relation to the portrayal of the other male characters and potential suitors for the two heroines, Shirley Keeldar and Caroline Helstone, within the novel: in particular, the representation of masculinity which is demonstrated through them. The curate Malone, while courageous, hearty and quintessentially masculine, is ridiculed by the narrator for his harsh, coarse and stupid nature. In direct contrast, the characters of the other curate, Sweeting, and Sir Philip Nunnely are portrayed as weak, over-sensitive and effeminate, although they are treated with more respect and approval by the narrator than is the character of Malone. It is regarded as obvious, however, that neither Caroline nor Shirley could love such effeminate men. By comparison, their future husbands, Robert and Louis Moore, present a happy medium, combining masculine courage with sensitivity and intelligence. Robert, however, is not presented in the same way as his brother Louis. He is portrayed as essentially flawed, a selfish materialist who encourages then ignores his cousin Caroline, who he knows is in love with him, until she becomes dangerously ill. However, the narrator implicitly suggests that his love for Caroline helps him to develop into a better man; thus the redemptive power of love allows the narrators approval concerning his eventual marriage to Caroline. Indeed, this can be seen as the only ending for the relationship of Robert and Caroline. While she is intelligent and sensitive, Caroline is not depicted as having the physical and mental energy of Shirley; she is more the passive heroine we find in other works of Victorian literature. Her love-sickness over Robert Moore which causes her to become seriously ill, her immediate acceptance, without resentment, of the mother who abandoned her, and her acceptance of life as an old maid if she cannot marry Robert, all seem to be standard to this kind of heroine; thus Carolines marriage to Robert at the end of the novel, in spite of his ill-treatment and manipulation of her throughout, can be seen as the only possible destiny for her, since her life revolves solely around one man in a way Shirleys does not. De Beauvoirs notion of the myth of woman can also be observed in the portrayal of the two old maids in the novel, Miss Mann and Miss Ainley, who Caroline goes to visit when contemplating her future as a spinster. Like Miss Bates in Emma, they are subjected to the mockery and ridicule of those around them, ostracised from a society in which marriage is considered the norm, defining themselves through good works, poor with no husband to support them and no possibility, because of their gender, of economic independence. While both are examples of the myth of woman in that both represent traditional ideas of the old maid in Victorian England, they are seen also as opposites; Miss Ainley is depicted as the saintly, maternal figure who accepts current hardships by thinking of a heavenly reward, whereas in contrast is the character of Miss Mann, the sad, embittered old maid who cant help but be resentful of the society which created her.

Writing Assignment Rubric Forewarned is Forearmed

Writing Assignment Rubric Forewarned is Forearmed Writing Assignment Rubric: Forewarned is Forearmed A writing assignment rubric can be difficult to decipher. But getting acquainted with a writing rubric before you write an essay, paper, or any writing assignment is essential to getting good grades. If you don’t know what your teacher expects of you, and write something for your teacher regardless, you are willingly putting yourself in a sticky situation. So, what are the usual parts of a writing rubric and how to impress your teacher by following it? There is usually a hierarchy of categories that are attended to. The following is a list of the important things to pay attention to in order to get the highest grade for your assignments: Communicating your message. Is your content clear? Do you lose focus on the main topic during the essay? If you read your writing as a reader, can you understand it? These questions will reflect whether or not you have communicated your message properly. Writing is a form of communication. Do you write in a fancy way just for kicks? Always make sure you are understood. Organization. Do you have transitions from paragraph to paragraph? Does your essay flow easily from topic to topic, or do you feel jumps in subject matter? Did you arrange your paragraphs in the most efficient manner, so that readers can see the affect of your thesis statement? Speaking of thesis statements, they are the crux of your paper. Your main body paragraphs must reflect and expound on your thesis statement. Style. Is your tone appropriate for your assignment? Are you using informal language when it is a formal essay? Do you think your teacher would enjoy the way you are writing? The way you convey your message is important, but also the tone and character of your writing is also key. Research. Did you validate all the claims you made with in-text citations? Do you have at least three sources? Are your sources reliable, recent, and appropriate? Teachers are keen on seeing if you have used the correct citation style: MLA, APA, Chicago, and more. They are also attentive to when students make claims and do not back them up with information from studies or related research. Grammar and punctuation. Do you use commas, semicolons, colons, and periods correctly? Are your sentences fluid and easy to read? Can you state your sentences in a better order? Though the mechanics of writing is a lower level concern, if you have enough grammatical and punctuation issues, your paper can be difficult to read or even unreadable. Following the rules of mechanics allows you to deliver your message soundly, without disruption. Don’t look at it as a tedious thing. Grammar and punctuation are needed to be heard clearly by your readers. Besides knowing these main criteria, it is important, in a practical sense, to keep your rubric close to you while you write. Checking it periodically as you write is essential to making sure you don’t mess up and have to write everything over again. Also, if you are confused about something in your rubric, don’t feel shy to ask your teacher about it.

Research Methods CASE5 Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Methods CASE5 - Research Paper Example The data achieved was used to measure the level of achievement in the two groups. Another measure comprised the final grades of the students in the course depicted by percentage scores. A paired sample t –test was used to examine the achievements in the two groups. In addition, differences in pre post surveys was examined to get the differences based on formats of teaching in single taught and team taught groups, while similarly controlling the demographic variables in both the sections using MANCOVA. The grades of the two groups were also examined based on the format of teaching by use of independent t-test. Differences in pre-post for the examined factors from the survey of the two teams were analyzed. The results showed a significant increase in research and statistics basis. However, there were no any significant differences for the other two variables. The pre-post differences for the survey factors that are based on format of teaching in both the single and team taught groups when demographic variables are controlled showed that there was a significant difference between work, research and statistics. The single taught students showed an increase in pre post relationship between course materials and work. The team taught group showed a pre post decline in the relationship between course materials and work. (Sesser 2012) says that the results indicate no significant interactions statistically exist in opinion factors and demographic variables. When the final grade is used to gauge the differences in effects of this two type of learning, there is a significant variance between single taught and team taught groups. Team taught students are observed to attain higher course grades than those of the students in solo taught groups. The standard deviation in the statistics obtained in the two groups was also examined. (Hill 2005) says that the variance in the team taught is always less than

Case Study analysis for Marketing Communications Essay

Case Study analysis for Marketing Communications - Essay Example Companies in business areas such as beer and cider as well as other beverages benefit from sponsorship of sports personalities, clubs and events as these are opportunities for highlighting the spirit of entertainment and social celebrations, which is one of the intrinsic values of the product. The company is launching its advertising campaign on a rolling regional basis, starting from Southern London England followed by Scotland. However, when entering a market as UK, which is not very large in its size, it may be more effective to plan a national campaign, which will utilize national TV, and Press backed by outdoor advertising. The largest poster may be an effective means of attracting attention but the exposure level of the location is limited to those who are traveling via Heathrow airport to Ireland. The cost effectiveness per exposure may question the effectiveness of this advertising tool. The product positioning currently being conveyed by the campaign focuses on the product’s naturalness, tradition and heritage. Although these aspects appealed to the nationalistic Irish public, it may not be an effective positioning to the British. The company to adopt the â€Å"Pint Over Ice† concept combined with the naturalness aspect of the C&C’s product. The key message should be â€Å"Pint Over Ice† which targets the popularity of serving beverages in draught form in UK. The concept of â€Å"Pint On Ice† should be promoted as an integrated message through TV Ads, Press, Bill Boards as well as on location promotions with serving demonstrations. As the key challenge is to change the image of the cider product in UK public’s mind, the marketing communications focus has to be on above the line TV and press advertising conveying the premium image. The company should extend its advertising activities to pub level with Point of Sales material and promotions to add excitement. By providing branded product premiums such as caps, key tags

Tragedy in Death of a Salesman Essay Example for Free

Tragedy in Death of a Salesman Essay Arthur Miller depicts a salesman, named Willy Loman in the play Death of a Salesman. Faced with hardships and troubles, Willy maneuvers in ways that cause his unfortunate outcome. In the tragedy, Death of a Salesman, the main protagonist Willy Loman’s fatal flaws were his unrelenting pride and his inability to face reality, which ultimately led to his demise. This novel is a tale about the tragedy that was the life of Willy Loman. A tragedy is a â€Å"serious drama† that depicts a â€Å"conflict† between the protagonist and a â€Å"superior force† such as which ends up with â€Å"disastrous consequences† that elicits â€Å"pity†. (Merriam Webster) Death of a Salesman is a tragedy because the main protagonist is a man filled with unrealistic hopes and dreams that lead to his demise. Although the story portrays a tragedy, I believe Willy Loman attempted to find optimism in defeat. By definition, a tragic hero is â€Å"a great or virtuous character in a dramatic tragedy that is destined for downfall, suffering, or defeat.† (Dictionary.com) Willy’s life resembled that of a tragic hero, he was not one by definition because there was nothing great or virtuous about him. He was an average person who lived a tragic life. As one critic suggests, â€Å"Willy Loman is too far down the social scale to be considered a classical â€Å"tragic hero† he represents the average man.† We learn that he made mistakes just like any other human being. In fact, one of the mistakes he made changed the very way he lived his life and perceived himself. In the beginning of the story, Willy cheats on his wife and is caught by his son Biff, which negatively affects their long-term relationship. As a result, Willy always feels guilty, leading to a constant struggle between father and son about almost everything. One example of this is in Act II, after arguing Biff says to his father, â€Å"Dad, you’re never going to see what I am, so what’s the use of arguing? If I strike oil, I’ll send you a check. Meantime, forget I’m alive† (129). A lot of times they argued because Willy always wanted to see the positive even when in realit y things were not as he believed. The tragedy is that his life was full of delusions and misguided dreams. In the beginning of the story, Willy explains to his wife why they cannot leave the crowded city to live in New York They dont need me in New York. Im the New England man. Im vital in New England(4). However, as the story continues we see that Willy had a false perception of himself. In fact, he was not well liked. Instead, he was  laughed at and pitied. In actuality, his boss had wanted to fire him, but just did not have the nerve to do it. This is seen when Willy goes to his boss asking to be given a position as a floor salesman, his boss tells him, â€Å"I don’t want you to represent us. I’ve been meaning to tell you for a long time now†(83). After Willy’s life long commitment to the company, he is fired and even then, he does not wake up to the understanding that in society he is nothing special. Biff tries to make his father realize that he is nothing special by saying, Pop! Im a dime a dozen, and so are you! This infuriates Willy who counterattacks, I am not a dime a dozen! I am Willy Loman, and you are Biff Loman! Another one of Willy’s flaws was his unrelenting pride. For example, when Charley offers him a job he refuses saying he already has one even though in truth he was just fired. After further discussion Willy finally responds saying, â€Å" I can’t work for you, that’s all, don’t ask me why† (98). We see irony here because a little after this Willy is willing to ask Charley to borrow money but refuses to take a job from him. Willy Loman’s flaw was his hubris and his inability to face reality. He had the right idea just the wrong dreams. Ultimately, his unrelenting pride and his inability to face reality led him to his demise. One must acknowledge that throughout the whole story he strived to make up for his mistakes and do the right thing. He had mostly good intentions, however, he made mistakes just like any other human being. However, contrary to most people, he judged himself harshly for his mistakes and constantly criticized himself. He tried to overlook his mistakes or hide them for the rest of his life. As the play goes on, we learn that he has a hard time facing reality that is complicated by his unrelenting pride and at the same time, he suffers from self-loathing. As the play goes on and Willy’s identity as a salesman is stripped from him, we begin to understand better the importance of his life insurance policy. After Willy loses his job, which was his primary identity, he is forced to face reality that he could never be like his brother who was his hero. He could never be the father he wanted to be or thought his sons deserved. He wanted his son Biff to look up to him and excel in life. He realized that he was not the star salesman he always believed himself to be. We see this as he becomes increasingly preoccupied with his life insurance policy, which symbolizes the only other way he can provide for his family; he has been a failure at everything else.  He always had the best intentions and the play ends with Willy trying to provide for his family in the only way possible, as the critique states, â€Å"Willy of course ends the play with nothing he can sell – except himself, hoping that his expired life insurance policy will pay up.† According to Dictionary.com, the definition of a tragic hero is â€Å"a great or virtuous character in a dramatic tragedy who is destined for downfall, suffering, or defeat.† Although Willy was not a virtuous character, in the end, he tried to do what he thought was right by providing for his family in the only way he thought possible. His life was tragic because he tried to cope by living in denial about his failures. In the end, he faced reality in the only way he thought he could, by taking his life. Works Cited 1. Miller, Arthur, and Gerald Clifford. Weales. Arthur Miller: Death of a Salesman, Text and Criticism. New York. Penguin, 1996. Print. 2. Tragedy. Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster. Web. 09 Apr. 2012. . 3. Tragic Hero. Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com. Web. 08 Apr. 2012. . 4. Literary Criticism Attached

Imperialism Essay -- essays research papers fc

Imperialism Imperialism Throughout time more powerful countries have extended their influence over weaker countries and then colonized those countries to expand their own power. Imperialism causes the stronger countries to grow and become nations or even empires. There are many examples throughout European history of nations enveloping weaker countries and increasing their own wealth and power to form strong nation-states and even empires. Through imperialism one culture is invading another culture and most of the time the European colonialists are not thinking about the effects this invasion might have on the natives of that land. Problems caused by imperialism have prevailed to this day. Imperialism caused a breakdown of the previous cultures and lifestyles that the natives had followed. The European imperialism caused many of the now prevalent ethnic rivalries that can be found in northern India, parts of Asia, and parts of Africa. "Africa and much of the developing world have been strug gling for nearly half a century to come to terms with grinding ethnic and tribal rivalries that remain, in a way, one of the most enduring legacies of their colonial past." In many cases of European imperialism, the European colonialists would pick a favored minority in one of their colonies to govern their colony locally and with this priority came assurance of the best jobs and favored treatment. This caused a sort of rivalry between that minority and the majority of natives who were not given this priority. Resentment towards these favored minorities grows and after the country achieves independence the popular resentment can turn to violence. An example of this is the Sikhs in India. The Sikhs created the powerful state of Punjab in 1800, which became a threat to British-controlled India and after two years of war Britain annexed the Punjab in 1849. The Sikhs were loyal to the British. In return for that loyalty, during the Sepoy Mutiny the British gave them preferential la nd grants. Throughout British rule, the Sikhs gained wealth and a great reputation as soldiers and policemen. After independence, they lost all of their special privileges and found their state divided between India and Pakistan. This followed with a bitter war against the Muslims in 1965, which forced the Sikhs to migrate from their homeland of Punjab to India. This followed a year ... ...o the level of nation-state and higher, because along with the exploitation of their culture and people, the Europeans also brought the means to advance to an industrial society. With those abilities they can still flourish in the future. Bibliography Works Consulted Davenport, Prof. TRH. South African Communication Services. â€Å"South Africa: History.† Available [Online] http://www.facts.com/cd/C01001.htm Copyright 1995. â€Å"History of Troubles† World BookTM Multimedia Encyclopedia. Available [Online] http://www.worldbook.com/fun/bth/html/hist.htm Copyright 1998. â€Å"Ireland (History)† The Concise Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Third Edition. Available [Online] http://www.encyclopedia .com/articles/06458.html Copyright 1998. â€Å"South Africa- can a country overcome its history?† available [Online] http://www.learner.org/exhibits/southafrica/ Copyright 1998. Ulack, Richard. â€Å"Malaysia† Encarta [CD-Rom] updated: July 1997. Winchester, N. Brian; O’Meara, Patrick. â€Å"Republic of South Africa† Encarta [CD-Rom] updated: August, 1998. Lapping, Brian. Apartheid: A History. Braziller, New York: 1987. Lemon, Anthony. â€Å"Sikhs and Sikhism† Encarta [CD-Rom] updated: July 1998. Word Count: 1456

A People’s History of the United States

Since the arrival of the Virginians to the New World, they were desperate for labor. The Virginians were unable to grow enough food to stay alive. During the winter, they were reduced to roaming the woods for nuts and berries and digging up graves to eat the corpses until five hundred colonists were reduced to sixty. They couldn’t force the Indians to work for them because they were outnumbered and despite their superior firearms, they knew the Indians could massacre them. The Indians also had amazing spirit and resistance. They would prefer to die than be controlled by others. Indentured servants wouldn’t suffice because they had not been brought over in sufficient quantity. Also, indentured servants only had to work for a few years to repay their debt. Indentured servants eventually assimilated into society, increasing the need for laborers. Black slaves were the answer, as a million blacks had already been brought from Africa to the Portuguese and Spanish colonies. The first Africans that arrived in Virginia were considered as servants, but were treated and viewed differently from white servants. Even before the slave trade begun, the color black was distasteful. The Africans were viewed as inferior and that was the beginning of racism. It was easy for the English enslave the Africans. They were helpless; the English tore them from their land and culture and they were no match for the English’s guns and ships. Africans were captured and sent to the coast where they were kept in cages until they were picked and sold. Then they were packed aboard the slave ships in spaces that were no bigger than coffins. The combination of desperation from the Jamestown settlers, difficulty of using whites and Indians as servants, the availability of Africans and their helplessness made them the ideal candidates for enslavement. They were the solution to the settler’s problems. Tabaco, cotton, and sugar plantations made the colonies extremely wealthy; however, there simply were not enough whites to meet the need of the plantations. So as the plantation system grew, slavery grew. The slaves were taught to be insubordinate. They endured hard labor, separation from their families, and the power of law, allowing them to be punished physically. And thus the beginning of slavery and the drawing of the racial line. A People’s History of the United States Howard Zinn’s â€Å"A People’s History of the United States† appears to be unique as it presents historical events from the perspectives of the poor, minorities and dispossessed.The expeditions of Christopher Columbus to North America, as Zinn had presented, resulted in the appalling genocide and exploitation of Carribean’s indigenous peoples (only few Americans have learned such in school and most historians tend to overlook) (Zinn, Howard; 1980).Zinn viewed and presented Columbus as the oppressor. From the beginning of the expedition, Columbus had intended to extract wealth from the natives. He demonstrated Columbus’ malevolent motives as he quoted the latter’s words upon encountering with the Indians: â€Å"They brought us parrots and balls of cotton in exchange for the glass beads and hawk’s bells†¦They would make fine servants†¦With fifty men we could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want† (Zinn, Ho ward; 1980). Indeed, this is evidence that from the beginning, Columbus had been eager to assess the exploitability of the native inhabitants.Furthermore, Zinn also described the nobility and innocence of the natives and had proved that Indian culture treated its women well using the following quotation from a Spanish priest who was with Columbus: â€Å"Marriage laws are non-existent; men and women alike choose their mates†¦Indian men and women look upon total nakedness with as much casualness† (Zinn, Howard; 1980).Personally, Zinn’s presentation of historical events with respect to Columbus’ religious motivations varied from other historians. In the case of other historians (like Marshall) for instance, they took Columbus’ desire to evangelize the natives with seriousness as if they are willing to take these statements at face value; while Zinn, dismisses them by saying â€Å"He was full of religious talk† (stated on page 3).Work CitedZinn, H oward (1980); â€Å"A People’s History of the United States: Columbus, the Indians and Human Progress†; edited by Harper Collins (2003): Book A People’s History of the United States Since the arrival of the Virginians to the New World, they were desperate for labor. The Virginians were unable to grow enough food to stay alive. During the winter, they were reduced to roaming the woods for nuts and berries and digging up graves to eat the corpses until five hundred colonists were reduced to sixty. They couldn’t force the Indians to work for them because they were outnumbered and despite their superior firearms, they knew the Indians could massacre them. The Indians also had amazing spirit and resistance. They would prefer to die than be controlled by others. Indentured servants wouldn’t suffice because they had not been brought over in sufficient quantity. Also, indentured servants only had to work for a few years to repay their debt. Indentured servants eventually assimilated into society, increasing the need for laborers. Black slaves were the answer, as a million blacks had already been brought from Africa to the Portuguese and Spanish colonies. The first Africans that arrived in Virginia were considered as servants, but were treated and viewed differently from white servants. Even before the slave trade begun, the color black was distasteful. The Africans were viewed as inferior and that was the beginning of racism. It was easy for the English enslave the Africans. They were helpless; the English tore them from their land and culture and they were no match for the English’s guns and ships. Africans were captured and sent to the coast where they were kept in cages until they were picked and sold. Then they were packed aboard the slave ships in spaces that were no bigger than coffins. The combination of desperation from the Jamestown settlers, difficulty of using whites and Indians as servants, the availability of Africans and their helplessness made them the ideal candidates for enslavement. They were the solution to the settler’s problems. Tabaco, cotton, and sugar plantations made the colonies extremely wealthy; however, there simply were not enough whites to meet the need of the plantations. So as the plantation system grew, slavery grew. The slaves were taught to be insubordinate. They endured hard labor, separation from their families, and the power of law, allowing them to be punished physically. And thus the beginning of slavery and the drawing of the racial line.